Yurok language Article Talk Read Edit View history Tools From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Yurok Pueleekla’ Instructor teaching Yurok with the Yurok Language Program Native to United States Region Northwestern California Ethnicity Yurok Extinct 2013, with the death of Archie Thompson[1] Revival language revival in progress; 350 with some knowledge, 35 fluent L2 speakers[1] as of 2020[citation needed] Language family Algic Yurok Writing system Latin Language codes ISO 639-3 yur Glottolog yuro1248 ELP Yurok This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. Welcome sign with Yurok greeting, "Aiy-yu-kwee'" Yurok (also Chillula, Mita, Pekwan, Rikwa, Sugon, Weitspek, Weitspekan) is an Algic language.[2] It is the traditional language of the Yurok people of Del Norte County and Humboldt County on the far north coast of California, most of whom now speak English. The last known native speaker, Archie Thompson, died in 2013.[1] As of 2012, Yurok language classes were taught to high school students, and other revitalization efforts were expected to increase the population of speakers.[3] The standard reference on the Yurok language grammar is by R. H. Robins (1958).[4] Name Concerning the etymology of Yurok (a.k.a. Weitspekan), this below is from Campbell (1997): Yurok is from Karuk yúruk meaning literally 'downriver'. The Yurok traditional name for themselves is Puliklah (Hinton 1994:157), from pulik 'downstream' + -la 'people of', thus equivalent in meaning to the Karuk name by which they came to be known in English (Victor Golla, personal communication).(Campbell 1997:401, notes #131 & 132) History Decline of the language began during the California Gold Rush, due to the influx of new settlers and the diseases they brought with them and Native American boarding schools initiated by the United States government with the intent of incorporating the native populations of America into mainstream American society increased the rate of decline of the language.[5] Current status The program to revive Yurok has been lauded as the most successful language revitalization program in California.[6] As of 2014, there are six schools in Northern California that teach Yurok - four high schools and two elementary schools. Rick Jordan, principal of Eureka High School, one of the schools with a Yurok Language Program, remarks on the impact that schools can have on the vitality of a language, "A hundred years ago, it was our organizations that were beating the language out of folks, and now we're trying to re-instill it - a little piece of something that is much larger than us".[7] The last known native, active speaker of Yurok, Archie Thompson, died March 26, 2013. "He was also the last of about 20 elders who helped revitalize the language over the last few decades, after academics in the 1990s predicted it would be extinct by 2010. He made recordings of the language that were archived by UC Berkeley linguists and the tribe, spent hours helping to teach Yurok in community and school classrooms, and welcomed apprentice speakers to probe his knowledge."[1] Linguists at UC Berkeley began the Yurok Language Project in 2001. Professor Andrew Garrett and Dr. Juliette Blevins collaborated with tribal elders on a Yurok dictionary that has been hailed as a national model.[6] The Yurok Language Project has gone much more in depth than just a printed lexicon, however. The dictionary is available online and fully searchable. It is also possible to search an audio dictionary - a repository of audio clips of words and short phrases. For a more in depth study, there is a database of compiled texts where words and phrases can be viewed as part of a larger context.[8] As of February 2013, there are over 300 basic Yurok speakers, 60 with intermediate skills, 37 who are advanced, and 17 who are considered conversationally fluent.[6] As of 2014, nine people are certified to teach Yurok in schools. Since Yurok, like many other Native American languages, uses a master-apprentice system to train up speakers in the language, having even nine certified teachers would not be possible without a piece of legislation passed in 2009 in the state of California that allows indigenous tribes the power to appoint their own language teachers.[7] Phonology Vowels Vowels are as follows:[9][10] Front Central Back High i iː u uː Mid e ɚ ɚː ɔ ɔː Low a aː Consonants Consonants are as follows:[11] Bilabial Alveolar Retroflex Palatal Velar Glottal plain labialized Stop/ Affricate plain p t t͡ʃ k kʷ ʔ ejective pʼ tʼ t͡ʃʼ kʼ kʷʼ Fricative plain ɬ ʂ ʃ x h voiced ɣ Nasal plain m n glottalized ˀm ˀn Approximant plain l ɻ j w glottalized ˀl ˀɻ ˀj ˀw Notable is the lack of plain /s/. Yurok has an anticipatory vowel harmony system where underlying non-high vowels /a/, /e/, and /ɔ/ are realized as [ɚ] if they precede an /ɚ/.[12] The glottalized approximants /ˀl ˀɻ ˀj ˀw/ may be realized as creaky voice on the preceding vowel, a preceding glottal stop, or both. They are often devoiced when they occur at the end of a word.[citation needed] Yurok has front-, central-, and back-closing diphthongs. The second element of the diphthongs is considered a consonant or semivowel. This is because Yurok diphthongs are falling diphthongs and behave similarly to nasal and approximates following a vowel and preceding a pause or voiceless non-glottalized consonant.[4] All Yurok syllables begin with a consonant and contain at least one vowel. Here are some examples of the different kinds of syllable structure:[4] CV ki will, can CV: hoː to go CVC kuʂ when? how? CV:C kiːɬ redwood tree CVCC mekʷt͜ʃ snail CVCCC taʔanojʔɬ it is hot (weather) CV:CC hoːkʷʼt͜ʃʼ he gambles CV:CCC noːjt͜ʃʼkʷ he eats as a guest CCV t͜ʃpi only CCV: ploːlikin wide CCVC ɬkeɬ earth CCV:C t͜ʃpaːk late CCVCC plaʔʂ stick for measuring net meshes CCV:CC ɬkoːʔm they take CCVC ɬkjoɻkʷekʼ I look CCVCCC t͜ʃkʷaʔɻkʼ near CV:VC ʂoːol yew CCV:V knuːu hawk V:V can only be /oːo/ or /uːu/ and is signaled by a change in pitch between the vowels. Morphology Yurok morphological processes include prefixation, infixation, inflection, vowel harmony, ablaut, consonantal alternation,[clarification needed] and reduplication.[4] Prefixation and infixation occur in nominals and verbals, and occasionally in other classes, although infixation occurs most frequently in verbals. Vowel harmony occurs for prefixes, infixes, and inflections, depending on the vocalic and consonantal structure of the word stem. Internal vocalic alternation involves three alternating pairs: /e/~/i/, /e/~/iʔi/, /e/~/u/. Reduplication occurs mostly on verb stems but occasionally for nouns and can connote repetition, plurality, etc. Reduplication occurs on the first syllable, and sometimes a part of the second syllable: Stem Reduplicated form Verbs kelomen to turn (trans.) kekelomen to turn several things ketʼul there is a lake ketʼketʼul there is a series of lakes kneweʔlon to be long kokoneweʔlon to be long (of things) ɬkɻʔmɻkɬkin to tie a knot. ɬkɻʔmɬkɻʔmɻkɻɬkin to tie up in knots ʂjaːɬk to kick ʂjaʔʂjaːɬk to kick repeatedly tekʷʂ to cut tekʷtekʷʂ to cut up tikʷohʂ to break (trans.) tikʷtikʷohʂ to break in pieces Nouns mɻkʷɻɬ peak mɻkʷɻmɻkʷɻɬ series of peaks ʂlekʷoh shirt ʂlekʷʂlekʷ clothes Classifications Numerals and adjectives can be classified according to the noun grammatically associated with them.[13] Numerals Common root frame: /n - hks-/ Human beings /nahkseyl/ Animals and birds /nrhksrʔrʔy/ Round things /nrhksrʔrʔy/ Tools /nahksoh/ Plants other than trees /nahksek'woʔn/ Trees and sticks /nahkseʔr/ Body parts and clothes /nahkseʔn/ Long things /nahksek'/ Flat things /nahksok's/ Houses /nahkseʔli/ Boats /nahksey/ Days /nahksemoyt/ Arm's lengths (depth measurements) /nahksemrys/ Finger joint lengths (length measurement of dentalium shells) /nahksepir/ Times /nahksemi/ Adjectives (to be) red (to be) big Human beings /prkaryrʔry(-)/ /peloy-/ Animals and birds /prkryrʔry(-)/ /plrʔry-/ Round things /prkryrh/ /ploh/, /plohkeloy-/ Tools /pekoyoh/ /peloy-/ Plants other than trees /pekoyoh/ /ploh/, /plohkeloy-/ Trees and sticks /pekoyeʔr/ /peloy-/, /plep-/ Body parts and clothes /pekoyoh/ /plep-/, /plohkeloy-/ Long things /pekoyoh/ /plep-/ Flat things /pekoyoks-/ /ploks-/ Houses /pekoyoh/ /pleʔloy-/ Boats /pekoyoh/ /pleyteloy-/ Water /pekoyop-/ --- Tense and aspect As in many indigenous languages of the Americas, Yurok verbs do not code tense through inflection. The time when an action takes place is inferred through both linguistic and nonlinguistic context. On the other hand, aspect is prevalent in Yurok verbs, being indicated by preverbal particles. These occur either directly or indirectly before a verb. These can combine with verbs and other particles to indicate time and many other aspects. Some preverbal particles include: ho (completed action in the past); kic (past but with ongoing effects); wo (past after a negative, or in "unreal conditions"); ?ap (past with the implication of starting some action).[14] Basic syntax The most common form of sentence structure consists of a Nominal + Verbal. Indeed, most other, seemingly more complex sentence structures can be viewed as expanding on this fundamental type.[15]
@27NO3Ай бұрын
The "Old World" (Latin: Mundus Vetus) is a term for Afro-Eurasia that originated in Europe after 1493, when Europeans became aware of the existence of the Americas.[1] It is used to contrast the continents of Africa, Europe, and Asia in the Eastern Hemisphere, previously thought of by their inhabitants as comprising the entire world, with the "New World", a term for the newly encountered lands of the Western Hemisphere, particularly the Americas.[2] While located closer to Afro-Eurasia within the Eastern Hemisphere, Australia is considered neither an Old World nor a New World land, since it was only discovered by Europeans after the distinction had been made; both Australia and Antarctica were associated instead with the Terra Australis that had been posited as a hypothetical southern continent. Etymology In the context of archaeology and world history, the term "Old World" includes those parts of the world which were in (indirect) cultural contact from the Bronze Age onwards, resulting in the parallel development of the early civilizations, mostly in the temperate zone between roughly the 45th and 25th parallels north, in the area of the Mediterranean, including North Africa. It also included Mesopotamia, the Persian plateau, the Indian subcontinent, China, and parts of Sub-Saharan Africa. These regions were connected via the Silk Road trade route, and they had a pronounced Iron Age period following the Bronze Age. In cultural terms, the Iron Age was accompanied by the so-called Axial Age, referring to cultural, philosophical and religious developments eventually leading to the emergence of the historical Western (Hellenism, "classical"), Near Eastern (Zoroastrian and Abrahamic) and Far Eastern (Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, Confucianism, Taoism) cultural spheres.
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Antarctica (/ænˈtɑːrktɪkə/ ⓘ)[note 1] is Earth's southernmost and least-populated continent. Situated almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle and surrounded by the Southern Ocean (also known as the Antarctic Ocean), it contains the geographic South Pole. Antarctica is the fifth-largest continent, being about 40% larger than Europe, and has an area of 14,200,000 km2 (5,500,000 sq mi). Most of Antarctica is covered by the Antarctic ice sheet, with an average thickness of 1.9 km (1.2 mi). Antarctica is, on average, the coldest, driest, and windiest of the continents, and it has the highest average elevation. It is mainly a polar desert, with annual precipitation of over 200 mm (8 in) along the coast and far less inland. About 70% of the world's freshwater reserves are frozen in Antarctica, which, if melted, would raise global sea levels by almost 60 metres (200 ft). Antarctica holds the record for the lowest measured temperature on Earth, −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F). The coastal regions can reach temperatures over 10 °C (50 °F) in the summer. Native species of animals include mites, nematodes, penguins, seals and tardigrades. Where vegetation occurs, it is mostly in the form of lichen or moss. The ice shelves of Antarctica were probably first seen in 1820, during a Russian expedition led by Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev. The decades that followed saw further exploration by French, American, and British expeditions. The first confirmed landing was by a Norwegian team in 1895. In the early 20th century, there were a few expeditions into the interior of the continent. British explorers Robert Falcon Scott and Ernest Shackleton were the first to reach the magnetic South Pole in 1909, and the geographic South Pole was first reached in 1911 by Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen.[4] Antarctica is governed by about 30 countries, all of which are parties of the 1959 Antarctic Treaty System. According to the terms of the treaty, military activity, mining, nuclear explosions, and nuclear waste disposal are all prohibited in Antarctica. Tourism, fishing and research are the main human activities in and around Antarctica. During the summer months, about 5,000 people reside at research stations, a figure that drops to around 1,000 in the winter. Despite the continent's remoteness, human activity has a significant effect on it via pollution, ozone depletion, and climate change. The melting of the potentially unstable West Antarctic ice sheet causes the most uncertainty in century-scale projections of sea level rise, and the same melting also affects the Southern Ocean overturning circulation, which can eventually lead to significant impacts on the Southern Hemisphere climate and Southern Ocean productivity.
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The name given to the continent originates from the word antarctic, which comes from Middle French antartique or antarctique ('opposite to the Arctic') and, in turn, the Latin antarcticus ('opposite to the north'). Antarcticus is derived from the Greek ἀντι- ('anti-') and ἀρκτικός ('of the Bear', 'northern').[5] The Greek philosopher Aristotle wrote in Meteorology about an "Antarctic region" in c. 350 BCE.[6] The Greek geographer Marinus of Tyre reportedly used the name in his world map from the second century CE, now lost. The Roman authors Gaius Julius Hyginus and Apuleius used for the South Pole the romanised Greek name polus antarcticus,[7] from which derived the Old French pole antartike (modern pôle antarctique) attested in 1270, and from there the Middle English pol antartik, found first in a treatise written by the English author Geoffrey Chaucer.[5] Belief by Europeans in the existence of a Terra Australis-a vast continent in the far south of the globe to balance the northern lands of Europe, Asia, and North Africa-had existed as an intellectual concept since classical antiquity. The belief in such a land lasted until the European discovery of Australia.[8] During the early 19th century, explorer Matthew Flinders doubted the existence of a detached continent south of Australia (then called New Holland) and thus advocated for the "Terra Australis" name to be used for Australia instead.[9][10] In 1824, the colonial authorities in Sydney officially renamed the continent of New Holland to Australia, leaving the term "Terra Australis" unavailable as a reference to Antarctica. Over the following decades, geographers used phrases such as "the Antarctic Continent". They searched for a more poetic replacement, suggesting names such as Ultima and Antipodea.[11] Antarctica was adopted in the 1890s, with the first use of the name being attributed to the Scottish cartographer John George Bartholomew.[12]
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Positioned asymmetrically around the South Pole and largely south of the Antarctic Circle (one of the five major circles of latitude that mark maps of the world), Antarctica is surrounded by the Southern Ocean.[note 2] Rivers exist in Antarctica; the longest is the Onyx. Antarctica covers more than 14.2 million km2 (5,500,000 sq mi), almost double the area of Australia, making it the fifth-largest continent. Its coastline is almost 18,000 km (11,200 mi) long:[1] as of 1983, of the four coastal types, 44% of the coast is floating ice in the form of an ice shelf, 38% consists of ice walls that rest on rock, 13% is ice streams or the edge of glaciers, and the remaining 5% is exposed rock.[14] The lakes that lie at the base of the continental ice sheet occur mainly in the McMurdo Dry Valleys or various oases.[15] Lake Vostok, discovered beneath Russia's Vostok Station, is the largest subglacial lake globally and one of the largest lakes in the world. It was once believed that the lake had been sealed off for millions of years, but scientists now estimate its water is replaced by the slow melting and freezing of ice caps every 13,000 years.[16] During the summer, the ice at the edges of the lakes can melt, and liquid moats temporarily form. Antarctica has both saline and freshwater lakes.[15] Antarctica is divided into West Antarctica and East Antarctica by the Transantarctic Mountains, which stretch from Victoria Land to the Ross Sea.[17][18] The vast majority of Antarctica is covered by the Antarctic ice sheet, which averages 1.9 km (1.2 mi) in thickness.[19] The ice sheet extends to all but a few oases, which, with the exception of the McMurdo Dry Valleys, are located in coastal areas.[20] Several Antarctic ice streams flow to one of the many Antarctic ice shelves, a process described by ice-sheet dynamics.[21] photograph of Vinson Massif Vinson Massif from the northwest, the highest peak in Antarctica East Antarctica comprises Coats Land, Queen Maud Land, Enderby Land, Mac. Robertson Land, Wilkes Land, and Victoria Land. All but a small portion of the region lies within the Eastern Hemisphere. East Antarctica is largely covered by the East Antarctic Ice Sheet.[22] There are numerous islands surrounding Antarctica, most of which are volcanic and very young by geological standards.[23] The most prominent exceptions to this are the islands of the Kerguelen Plateau, the earliest of which formed around 40 Ma.[23][24] Vinson Massif, in the Ellsworth Mountains, is the highest peak in Antarctica at 4,892 m (16,050 ft).[25] Mount Erebus on Ross Island is the world's southernmost active volcano and erupts around 10 times each day. Ash from eruptions has been found 300 kilometres (190 mi) from the volcanic crater.[26] There is evidence of a large number of volcanoes under the ice, which could pose a risk to the ice sheet if activity levels were to rise.[27] The ice dome known as Dome Argus in East Antarctica is the highest Antarctic ice feature, at 4,091 metres (13,422 ft). It is one of the world's coldest and driest places-temperatures there may reach as low as −90 °C (−130 °F), and the annual precipitation is 1-3 cm (0.39-1.18 in).[28]
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From the end of the Neoproterozoic era to the Cretaceous, Antarctica was part of the supercontinent Gondwana.[29] Modern Antarctica was formed as Gondwana gradually broke apart beginning around 183 Ma.[30] For a large proportion of the Phanerozoic, Antarctica had a tropical or temperate climate, and it was covered in forests.[31] Palaeozoic era (540-250 Ma) Glossopteris sp. leaf from the Permian of Antarctica During the Cambrian period, Gondwana had a mild climate.[32] West Antarctica was partially in the Northern Hemisphere, and during the time, large amounts of sandstones, limestones, and shales were deposited. East Antarctica was at the equator, where seafloor invertebrates and trilobites flourished in the tropical seas. By the start of the Devonian period (416 Ma), Gondwana was in more southern latitudes, and the climate was cooler, though fossils of land plants are known from then. Sand and silts were laid down in what is now the Ellsworth, Horlick and Pensacola Mountains. Antarctica became glaciated during the Late Paleozoic icehouse beginning at the end of the Devonian period (360 Ma), though glaciation would substantially increase during the late Carboniferous. It drifted closer to the South Pole, and the climate cooled, though flora remained.[33] After deglaciation during the latter half of the Early Permian, the land became dominated by glossopterids (an extinct group of seed plants with no close living relatives), most prominently Glossopteris, a tree interpreted as growing in waterlogged soils, which formed extensive coal deposits. Other plants found in Antarctica during the Permian include Cordaitales, sphenopsids, ferns, and lycophytes.[34] At the end of the Permian, the climate became drier and hotter over much of Gondwana, and the glossopterid forest ecosystems collapsed, as part of the End-Permian mass extinction.[34][35] There is no evidence of any tetrapods having lived in Antarctica during the Paleozoic.[36]
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Пр
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Эи сын мучает собаку ремнем? Если да я выпрыгну из 10 этажа
Пікірлер
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Yurok language Article Talk Read Edit View history Tools From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Yurok Pueleekla’ Instructor teaching Yurok with the Yurok Language Program Native to United States Region Northwestern California Ethnicity Yurok Extinct 2013, with the death of Archie Thompson[1] Revival language revival in progress; 350 with some knowledge, 35 fluent L2 speakers[1] as of 2020[citation needed] Language family Algic Yurok Writing system Latin Language codes ISO 639-3 yur Glottolog yuro1248 ELP Yurok This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. Welcome sign with Yurok greeting, "Aiy-yu-kwee'" Yurok (also Chillula, Mita, Pekwan, Rikwa, Sugon, Weitspek, Weitspekan) is an Algic language.[2] It is the traditional language of the Yurok people of Del Norte County and Humboldt County on the far north coast of California, most of whom now speak English. The last known native speaker, Archie Thompson, died in 2013.[1] As of 2012, Yurok language classes were taught to high school students, and other revitalization efforts were expected to increase the population of speakers.[3] The standard reference on the Yurok language grammar is by R. H. Robins (1958).[4] Name Concerning the etymology of Yurok (a.k.a. Weitspekan), this below is from Campbell (1997): Yurok is from Karuk yúruk meaning literally 'downriver'. The Yurok traditional name for themselves is Puliklah (Hinton 1994:157), from pulik 'downstream' + -la 'people of', thus equivalent in meaning to the Karuk name by which they came to be known in English (Victor Golla, personal communication).(Campbell 1997:401, notes #131 & 132) History Decline of the language began during the California Gold Rush, due to the influx of new settlers and the diseases they brought with them and Native American boarding schools initiated by the United States government with the intent of incorporating the native populations of America into mainstream American society increased the rate of decline of the language.[5] Current status The program to revive Yurok has been lauded as the most successful language revitalization program in California.[6] As of 2014, there are six schools in Northern California that teach Yurok - four high schools and two elementary schools. Rick Jordan, principal of Eureka High School, one of the schools with a Yurok Language Program, remarks on the impact that schools can have on the vitality of a language, "A hundred years ago, it was our organizations that were beating the language out of folks, and now we're trying to re-instill it - a little piece of something that is much larger than us".[7] The last known native, active speaker of Yurok, Archie Thompson, died March 26, 2013. "He was also the last of about 20 elders who helped revitalize the language over the last few decades, after academics in the 1990s predicted it would be extinct by 2010. He made recordings of the language that were archived by UC Berkeley linguists and the tribe, spent hours helping to teach Yurok in community and school classrooms, and welcomed apprentice speakers to probe his knowledge."[1] Linguists at UC Berkeley began the Yurok Language Project in 2001. Professor Andrew Garrett and Dr. Juliette Blevins collaborated with tribal elders on a Yurok dictionary that has been hailed as a national model.[6] The Yurok Language Project has gone much more in depth than just a printed lexicon, however. The dictionary is available online and fully searchable. It is also possible to search an audio dictionary - a repository of audio clips of words and short phrases. For a more in depth study, there is a database of compiled texts where words and phrases can be viewed as part of a larger context.[8] As of February 2013, there are over 300 basic Yurok speakers, 60 with intermediate skills, 37 who are advanced, and 17 who are considered conversationally fluent.[6] As of 2014, nine people are certified to teach Yurok in schools. Since Yurok, like many other Native American languages, uses a master-apprentice system to train up speakers in the language, having even nine certified teachers would not be possible without a piece of legislation passed in 2009 in the state of California that allows indigenous tribes the power to appoint their own language teachers.[7] Phonology Vowels Vowels are as follows:[9][10] Front Central Back High i iː u uː Mid e ɚ ɚː ɔ ɔː Low a aː Consonants Consonants are as follows:[11] Bilabial Alveolar Retroflex Palatal Velar Glottal plain labialized Stop/ Affricate plain p t t͡ʃ k kʷ ʔ ejective pʼ tʼ t͡ʃʼ kʼ kʷʼ Fricative plain ɬ ʂ ʃ x h voiced ɣ Nasal plain m n glottalized ˀm ˀn Approximant plain l ɻ j w glottalized ˀl ˀɻ ˀj ˀw Notable is the lack of plain /s/. Yurok has an anticipatory vowel harmony system where underlying non-high vowels /a/, /e/, and /ɔ/ are realized as [ɚ] if they precede an /ɚ/.[12] The glottalized approximants /ˀl ˀɻ ˀj ˀw/ may be realized as creaky voice on the preceding vowel, a preceding glottal stop, or both. They are often devoiced when they occur at the end of a word.[citation needed] Yurok has front-, central-, and back-closing diphthongs. The second element of the diphthongs is considered a consonant or semivowel. This is because Yurok diphthongs are falling diphthongs and behave similarly to nasal and approximates following a vowel and preceding a pause or voiceless non-glottalized consonant.[4] All Yurok syllables begin with a consonant and contain at least one vowel. Here are some examples of the different kinds of syllable structure:[4] CV ki will, can CV: hoː to go CVC kuʂ when? how? CV:C kiːɬ redwood tree CVCC mekʷt͜ʃ snail CVCCC taʔanojʔɬ it is hot (weather) CV:CC hoːkʷʼt͜ʃʼ he gambles CV:CCC noːjt͜ʃʼkʷ he eats as a guest CCV t͜ʃpi only CCV: ploːlikin wide CCVC ɬkeɬ earth CCV:C t͜ʃpaːk late CCVCC plaʔʂ stick for measuring net meshes CCV:CC ɬkoːʔm they take CCVC ɬkjoɻkʷekʼ I look CCVCCC t͜ʃkʷaʔɻkʼ near CV:VC ʂoːol yew CCV:V knuːu hawk V:V can only be /oːo/ or /uːu/ and is signaled by a change in pitch between the vowels. Morphology Yurok morphological processes include prefixation, infixation, inflection, vowel harmony, ablaut, consonantal alternation,[clarification needed] and reduplication.[4] Prefixation and infixation occur in nominals and verbals, and occasionally in other classes, although infixation occurs most frequently in verbals. Vowel harmony occurs for prefixes, infixes, and inflections, depending on the vocalic and consonantal structure of the word stem. Internal vocalic alternation involves three alternating pairs: /e/~/i/, /e/~/iʔi/, /e/~/u/. Reduplication occurs mostly on verb stems but occasionally for nouns and can connote repetition, plurality, etc. Reduplication occurs on the first syllable, and sometimes a part of the second syllable: Stem Reduplicated form Verbs kelomen to turn (trans.) kekelomen to turn several things ketʼul there is a lake ketʼketʼul there is a series of lakes kneweʔlon to be long kokoneweʔlon to be long (of things) ɬkɻʔmɻkɬkin to tie a knot. ɬkɻʔmɬkɻʔmɻkɻɬkin to tie up in knots ʂjaːɬk to kick ʂjaʔʂjaːɬk to kick repeatedly tekʷʂ to cut tekʷtekʷʂ to cut up tikʷohʂ to break (trans.) tikʷtikʷohʂ to break in pieces Nouns mɻkʷɻɬ peak mɻkʷɻmɻkʷɻɬ series of peaks ʂlekʷoh shirt ʂlekʷʂlekʷ clothes Classifications Numerals and adjectives can be classified according to the noun grammatically associated with them.[13] Numerals Common root frame: /n - hks-/ Human beings /nahkseyl/ Animals and birds /nrhksrʔrʔy/ Round things /nrhksrʔrʔy/ Tools /nahksoh/ Plants other than trees /nahksek'woʔn/ Trees and sticks /nahkseʔr/ Body parts and clothes /nahkseʔn/ Long things /nahksek'/ Flat things /nahksok's/ Houses /nahkseʔli/ Boats /nahksey/ Days /nahksemoyt/ Arm's lengths (depth measurements) /nahksemrys/ Finger joint lengths (length measurement of dentalium shells) /nahksepir/ Times /nahksemi/ Adjectives (to be) red (to be) big Human beings /prkaryrʔry(-)/ /peloy-/ Animals and birds /prkryrʔry(-)/ /plrʔry-/ Round things /prkryrh/ /ploh/, /plohkeloy-/ Tools /pekoyoh/ /peloy-/ Plants other than trees /pekoyoh/ /ploh/, /plohkeloy-/ Trees and sticks /pekoyeʔr/ /peloy-/, /plep-/ Body parts and clothes /pekoyoh/ /plep-/, /plohkeloy-/ Long things /pekoyoh/ /plep-/ Flat things /pekoyoks-/ /ploks-/ Houses /pekoyoh/ /pleʔloy-/ Boats /pekoyoh/ /pleyteloy-/ Water /pekoyop-/ --- Tense and aspect As in many indigenous languages of the Americas, Yurok verbs do not code tense through inflection. The time when an action takes place is inferred through both linguistic and nonlinguistic context. On the other hand, aspect is prevalent in Yurok verbs, being indicated by preverbal particles. These occur either directly or indirectly before a verb. These can combine with verbs and other particles to indicate time and many other aspects. Some preverbal particles include: ho (completed action in the past); kic (past but with ongoing effects); wo (past after a negative, or in "unreal conditions"); ?ap (past with the implication of starting some action).[14] Basic syntax The most common form of sentence structure consists of a Nominal + Verbal. Indeed, most other, seemingly more complex sentence structures can be viewed as expanding on this fundamental type.[15]
The "Old World" (Latin: Mundus Vetus) is a term for Afro-Eurasia that originated in Europe after 1493, when Europeans became aware of the existence of the Americas.[1] It is used to contrast the continents of Africa, Europe, and Asia in the Eastern Hemisphere, previously thought of by their inhabitants as comprising the entire world, with the "New World", a term for the newly encountered lands of the Western Hemisphere, particularly the Americas.[2] While located closer to Afro-Eurasia within the Eastern Hemisphere, Australia is considered neither an Old World nor a New World land, since it was only discovered by Europeans after the distinction had been made; both Australia and Antarctica were associated instead with the Terra Australis that had been posited as a hypothetical southern continent. Etymology In the context of archaeology and world history, the term "Old World" includes those parts of the world which were in (indirect) cultural contact from the Bronze Age onwards, resulting in the parallel development of the early civilizations, mostly in the temperate zone between roughly the 45th and 25th parallels north, in the area of the Mediterranean, including North Africa. It also included Mesopotamia, the Persian plateau, the Indian subcontinent, China, and parts of Sub-Saharan Africa. These regions were connected via the Silk Road trade route, and they had a pronounced Iron Age period following the Bronze Age. In cultural terms, the Iron Age was accompanied by the so-called Axial Age, referring to cultural, philosophical and religious developments eventually leading to the emergence of the historical Western (Hellenism, "classical"), Near Eastern (Zoroastrian and Abrahamic) and Far Eastern (Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, Confucianism, Taoism) cultural spheres.
Antarctica (/ænˈtɑːrktɪkə/ ⓘ)[note 1] is Earth's southernmost and least-populated continent. Situated almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle and surrounded by the Southern Ocean (also known as the Antarctic Ocean), it contains the geographic South Pole. Antarctica is the fifth-largest continent, being about 40% larger than Europe, and has an area of 14,200,000 km2 (5,500,000 sq mi). Most of Antarctica is covered by the Antarctic ice sheet, with an average thickness of 1.9 km (1.2 mi). Antarctica is, on average, the coldest, driest, and windiest of the continents, and it has the highest average elevation. It is mainly a polar desert, with annual precipitation of over 200 mm (8 in) along the coast and far less inland. About 70% of the world's freshwater reserves are frozen in Antarctica, which, if melted, would raise global sea levels by almost 60 metres (200 ft). Antarctica holds the record for the lowest measured temperature on Earth, −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F). The coastal regions can reach temperatures over 10 °C (50 °F) in the summer. Native species of animals include mites, nematodes, penguins, seals and tardigrades. Where vegetation occurs, it is mostly in the form of lichen or moss. The ice shelves of Antarctica were probably first seen in 1820, during a Russian expedition led by Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev. The decades that followed saw further exploration by French, American, and British expeditions. The first confirmed landing was by a Norwegian team in 1895. In the early 20th century, there were a few expeditions into the interior of the continent. British explorers Robert Falcon Scott and Ernest Shackleton were the first to reach the magnetic South Pole in 1909, and the geographic South Pole was first reached in 1911 by Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen.[4] Antarctica is governed by about 30 countries, all of which are parties of the 1959 Antarctic Treaty System. According to the terms of the treaty, military activity, mining, nuclear explosions, and nuclear waste disposal are all prohibited in Antarctica. Tourism, fishing and research are the main human activities in and around Antarctica. During the summer months, about 5,000 people reside at research stations, a figure that drops to around 1,000 in the winter. Despite the continent's remoteness, human activity has a significant effect on it via pollution, ozone depletion, and climate change. The melting of the potentially unstable West Antarctic ice sheet causes the most uncertainty in century-scale projections of sea level rise, and the same melting also affects the Southern Ocean overturning circulation, which can eventually lead to significant impacts on the Southern Hemisphere climate and Southern Ocean productivity.
The name given to the continent originates from the word antarctic, which comes from Middle French antartique or antarctique ('opposite to the Arctic') and, in turn, the Latin antarcticus ('opposite to the north'). Antarcticus is derived from the Greek ἀντι- ('anti-') and ἀρκτικός ('of the Bear', 'northern').[5] The Greek philosopher Aristotle wrote in Meteorology about an "Antarctic region" in c. 350 BCE.[6] The Greek geographer Marinus of Tyre reportedly used the name in his world map from the second century CE, now lost. The Roman authors Gaius Julius Hyginus and Apuleius used for the South Pole the romanised Greek name polus antarcticus,[7] from which derived the Old French pole antartike (modern pôle antarctique) attested in 1270, and from there the Middle English pol antartik, found first in a treatise written by the English author Geoffrey Chaucer.[5] Belief by Europeans in the existence of a Terra Australis-a vast continent in the far south of the globe to balance the northern lands of Europe, Asia, and North Africa-had existed as an intellectual concept since classical antiquity. The belief in such a land lasted until the European discovery of Australia.[8] During the early 19th century, explorer Matthew Flinders doubted the existence of a detached continent south of Australia (then called New Holland) and thus advocated for the "Terra Australis" name to be used for Australia instead.[9][10] In 1824, the colonial authorities in Sydney officially renamed the continent of New Holland to Australia, leaving the term "Terra Australis" unavailable as a reference to Antarctica. Over the following decades, geographers used phrases such as "the Antarctic Continent". They searched for a more poetic replacement, suggesting names such as Ultima and Antipodea.[11] Antarctica was adopted in the 1890s, with the first use of the name being attributed to the Scottish cartographer John George Bartholomew.[12]
Positioned asymmetrically around the South Pole and largely south of the Antarctic Circle (one of the five major circles of latitude that mark maps of the world), Antarctica is surrounded by the Southern Ocean.[note 2] Rivers exist in Antarctica; the longest is the Onyx. Antarctica covers more than 14.2 million km2 (5,500,000 sq mi), almost double the area of Australia, making it the fifth-largest continent. Its coastline is almost 18,000 km (11,200 mi) long:[1] as of 1983, of the four coastal types, 44% of the coast is floating ice in the form of an ice shelf, 38% consists of ice walls that rest on rock, 13% is ice streams or the edge of glaciers, and the remaining 5% is exposed rock.[14] The lakes that lie at the base of the continental ice sheet occur mainly in the McMurdo Dry Valleys or various oases.[15] Lake Vostok, discovered beneath Russia's Vostok Station, is the largest subglacial lake globally and one of the largest lakes in the world. It was once believed that the lake had been sealed off for millions of years, but scientists now estimate its water is replaced by the slow melting and freezing of ice caps every 13,000 years.[16] During the summer, the ice at the edges of the lakes can melt, and liquid moats temporarily form. Antarctica has both saline and freshwater lakes.[15] Antarctica is divided into West Antarctica and East Antarctica by the Transantarctic Mountains, which stretch from Victoria Land to the Ross Sea.[17][18] The vast majority of Antarctica is covered by the Antarctic ice sheet, which averages 1.9 km (1.2 mi) in thickness.[19] The ice sheet extends to all but a few oases, which, with the exception of the McMurdo Dry Valleys, are located in coastal areas.[20] Several Antarctic ice streams flow to one of the many Antarctic ice shelves, a process described by ice-sheet dynamics.[21] photograph of Vinson Massif Vinson Massif from the northwest, the highest peak in Antarctica East Antarctica comprises Coats Land, Queen Maud Land, Enderby Land, Mac. Robertson Land, Wilkes Land, and Victoria Land. All but a small portion of the region lies within the Eastern Hemisphere. East Antarctica is largely covered by the East Antarctic Ice Sheet.[22] There are numerous islands surrounding Antarctica, most of which are volcanic and very young by geological standards.[23] The most prominent exceptions to this are the islands of the Kerguelen Plateau, the earliest of which formed around 40 Ma.[23][24] Vinson Massif, in the Ellsworth Mountains, is the highest peak in Antarctica at 4,892 m (16,050 ft).[25] Mount Erebus on Ross Island is the world's southernmost active volcano and erupts around 10 times each day. Ash from eruptions has been found 300 kilometres (190 mi) from the volcanic crater.[26] There is evidence of a large number of volcanoes under the ice, which could pose a risk to the ice sheet if activity levels were to rise.[27] The ice dome known as Dome Argus in East Antarctica is the highest Antarctic ice feature, at 4,091 metres (13,422 ft). It is one of the world's coldest and driest places-temperatures there may reach as low as −90 °C (−130 °F), and the annual precipitation is 1-3 cm (0.39-1.18 in).[28]
From the end of the Neoproterozoic era to the Cretaceous, Antarctica was part of the supercontinent Gondwana.[29] Modern Antarctica was formed as Gondwana gradually broke apart beginning around 183 Ma.[30] For a large proportion of the Phanerozoic, Antarctica had a tropical or temperate climate, and it was covered in forests.[31] Palaeozoic era (540-250 Ma) Glossopteris sp. leaf from the Permian of Antarctica During the Cambrian period, Gondwana had a mild climate.[32] West Antarctica was partially in the Northern Hemisphere, and during the time, large amounts of sandstones, limestones, and shales were deposited. East Antarctica was at the equator, where seafloor invertebrates and trilobites flourished in the tropical seas. By the start of the Devonian period (416 Ma), Gondwana was in more southern latitudes, and the climate was cooler, though fossils of land plants are known from then. Sand and silts were laid down in what is now the Ellsworth, Horlick and Pensacola Mountains. Antarctica became glaciated during the Late Paleozoic icehouse beginning at the end of the Devonian period (360 Ma), though glaciation would substantially increase during the late Carboniferous. It drifted closer to the South Pole, and the climate cooled, though flora remained.[33] After deglaciation during the latter half of the Early Permian, the land became dominated by glossopterids (an extinct group of seed plants with no close living relatives), most prominently Glossopteris, a tree interpreted as growing in waterlogged soils, which formed extensive coal deposits. Other plants found in Antarctica during the Permian include Cordaitales, sphenopsids, ferns, and lycophytes.[34] At the end of the Permian, the climate became drier and hotter over much of Gondwana, and the glossopterid forest ecosystems collapsed, as part of the End-Permian mass extinction.[34][35] There is no evidence of any tetrapods having lived in Antarctica during the Paleozoic.[36]
Sus 0:13
Я видел ты в студии
Пр
Это я red_sinimak
Гении Что Ядро У Них Топовая
А я помогал
Я создатель The Train city лол
Можешь дать айди музыки?
ввввввввввецунф7ічякн3епуеіеппцйпрвцнепнрціпрчпнр уівфіцівйфв вц в уіа вц йіф і і чці в ц ів фв іф вц і йф в і фц і ві ф ц ві ф цв і цф в
А как написать имя на телефоне андроид в балди плюс?
ооо POTTERXUY это я)
Not CC2.
Начало взрывов: 0:49
cool game i like your game
Где ссылка на игру ?!
Описание нахер нужно
LOOK AT THE CORE 2:25
УКУПНИК❤❤❤
Car crushers 2
Эи сын мучает собаку ремнем? Если да я выпрыгну из 10 этажа
Укупнк аборт!!!😂
Те кто видел кто такой Укупник АХХАХАХАХАХАХАХАХА
Ты же мне подаришь сссооббб-ааакуууу?
What is this copy in car crushers 2
5:11 Song:The Vester Destination Road [The Nuke Trail]
Мама! Смотри укупник ляличка!
😂😂😂😂😂😂😂😂😂😂😂
Круто, в каком плейсе снимал?
Bloodtide
Горбокс-источник бегающих голов, и инцидентов
😂😂😂
Поставьте пожалуйста ему лайк ❤❤❤
-ну ты же подаришь мне собакуууу🥺🙏🏻? -нЕт -😭УАААААААААААА😭 (Автор Пж Закрепи)
С первой секунды вынесло 😂😂😂❤❤❤❤
Мамино лицо смешное😂😂😂😂😂
я тебе
да да
Я хочу к тебе зайти но ты вечно закрываешь сервер egorexe8
Nahhhh that aint car crushers 2 thats cc0
yea i know game need some updates like a more decorations over the map, but at this moment i just don't have time for any updates
❤❤❤❤😂😂😂😂😂😂 ну труп трупам 😂😂😂😂😂😂❤❤❤❤❤
я в эту игру играл жаль уменя нет этово гейпаса
Сенчоус оказался ненастоящий
Было дело...
Пон
А мне такой персонаж тоже есть
0:17